Moral rights are inalienable.

The copyright owner, as well as their successors or assignees, may authorize the use of the work by third parties or assign economic rights, wholly or partially.

Granting an authorization to third parties in order for them to divulge, publish, use or explore the work does not imply the transfer of copyright rights.

Authorization shall only be granted in writing, mandatorily including the parties involved, the title and type of the work, the rights concerned, the duration, place and price conditions.

Please note that the assigns are only effective against third parties when registered.

The basic rule is that ownership belongs to the author. Special rules have been developed in connection with special types of works, such as cinematographic works, derivative works and software.

There are several types of joint ownership. It may apply to works done through cooperation, which imply a creative collaboration between different authors; to collective works, which are those created through the initiative or direction of one or more individuals, who coordinate or direct the efforts of several other individuals to achieve a joint result; and to composite works, which are the result of adding different separate works, each with a possible separate author and owner, into one final result.

Works created by employees who have been hired for that purpose belong to the employer.

Copyright may be subject to licenses, generally as part of broader contractual arrangements, such as publishing agreements.

Co-ownership of an original work is recognized where the work has been produced by the collaboration of 2 or more authors and in which the contribution of each author is not separate from the contribution of the other author(s). Subject to a written agreement to the contrary, all co-owners of copyright must consent to the licensing of the copyright by any other joint owner.

An owner of a copyright may grant a license over some or all of the owner's rights. Statutory licensing schemes operate to allow certain copyrights to be used without the permission of the copyright owner, but this is conditional on the payment of equitable remuneration for that use, or a fair dealing exception applies. An owner may also assign their copyright or future copyright to another person.

The owner of a copyright can only be a natural person or their successor; a legal entity may only be a licensee. The right as such is not transferable (except in the case of universal succession – that is, inheritance). However, the owner may license single, several or all exploitation rights (eg, right to reproduce, right to distribute, right to make the work available, right to emit). Personality rights (eg, right to be named as author) are not transferable or limitable, unless agreed otherwise by the owner.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized.

Only natural persons (individuals) who have created a work may enjoy the status of an author, even where an author is an employee. In this latter case, the economic rights may be assigned to the employer on the condition that such assignment is expressly agreed in writing and that the creation of the work falls within the scope of the employment agreement. However, there are some statutory presumptions, such as those regarding the assignment of economic rights in computer programs, that automatically favor employers (unless provided otherwise).

Title 5 (Copyrights and Neighboring Rights) also includes a rebuttable presumption of authorship; the author is presumed to be the person shown as such on the work by virtue of the mention of their name or the appearance of another sign that enables their identification.

Persons collaborating directly towards the creation of a work become co-authors. Their copyright is indivisible.

In these situations, the exercise of the right of co-authors is governed by agreement. Failing such agreement, no author may exercise this right in isolation, unless a court decision provides otherwise in case of a dispute. In situations in which the contributions of the authors may be individually identified, those authors may not, unless they agree otherwise, market their work in conjunction with new collaborators. However, they do share the right to exploit their contribution in isolation provided that such exploitation does not harm the joint work.

Contrary to the author's moral rights, which are, in principle and as a whole, non-transferable and inalienable, the economic rights are freely assignable, transferable and licensable (on an ordinary or exclusive basis), in whole or in part, in accordance with the CEL’s provisions.

Through the implementation of the DSM Directive, Belgian copyright law also introduced new rights for authors and performers:

• Every author or performer assigning or licensing their rights for exploitation has the right to an appropriate and proportionate remuneration (Article XI.167/1 CEL).
• Every author or performer assigning or licensing his/her rights also has the right to transparency. In particular, the person to whom the rights are assigned or licensed will have to provide information to the author or performer on a regular basis regarding the exploitation of the work (Article XI.167/2 CEL).
• Furthermore, authors and performers having assigned or licensed their rights can claim additional appropriate and fair remuneration from the party with whom they entered into a contract for the exploitation of their rights, or from the successors in title of such party, when the remuneration originally agreed turns out to be disproportionately low compared to all the subsequent relevant revenues derived from the exploitation of the works or performances (the so-called “best-seller clause”) (Article XI.167/3 CEL).
• Lastly, the authors or performers having assigned or licensed their rights on an exclusive basis have the right to revoke in whole or in part the license or the assignment of rights where there is a lack of exploitation of that work or other protected subject matter within the agreed term or, if no term was agreed upon, within a term determined in accordance with fair professional practices (Article XI.167/4 CEL).

In addition, the Belgian Act of June 19, 2022 implementing the DSM Directive also introduced new remuneration rights for authors and performing artists in chapters 4/1 and 4/2 of Belgian copyright law. In brief, these new chapters introduced a new right for authors and performers vis-à-vis online content sharing services and streaming services to at all times be renumerated for communication to the public by such services, even if the exclusive rights of the author or performer were already assigned or licensed to other contracting parties (ie, as producers or labels). Hence, the remuneration right will be directly payable by such services to the author or performer (albeit through their management organizations).

The new renumeration rights in chapter 4/1 and 4/2 received heavy criticism and have been challenged before the Belgian Constitutional Court through an application for annulment on January 30, 2023. On September 26, 2024, the Constitutional Court referred 13 preliminary questions to the Court of Justice of the European Union (Case C-663/24). In the meantime, the new remuneration rights remain in full force and effect.

An author is, as a rule, the individual who has created the work. Corporate entities may be considered authors in case of collective works and if they are editors or producers of audiovisual works. Joint authorship of works is recognized.

Assignment and licenses of rights should always be made in writing. Definitive assignments must be in writing. If not made in writing and differently foreseen, the term of assignment or license will be 5 years. The assignment is valid only for the specified country; assignment and license agreements will always be interpreted restrictively and may be granted only for existing media.

Assignment of rights of authorship in and to works created in the future may be granted for a maximum of 5 years.

In general, the author of a work is the 1st owner of the copyright therein. Likewise, the maker of a sound recording, performer of a performer's performance, or broadcaster of a communication signal is the 1st owner of copyright. Exceptions include where the work is made in the course of employment, in which case the 1st owner of copyright is the person by whom the author was employed (without affecting the author’s moral rights), or where the work was prepared by or under the direction of the Crown, in which case copyright belongs to the Crown.

Joint ownership is recognized where the work is jointly authored. Although it is generally accepted in Canadian legal commentary that joint authors hold copyright as tenants in common rather than joint tenants, there is no definitive case law on the exact nature and mechanics of joint copyright co‑ownership. Given this uncertainty and the practical constraints on exploiting co‑owned works, it is highly recommended that joint owners record, in a written agreement, their specific rights and obligations toward each other and in relation to the exploitation of the work (including licensing, assignment, revenue sharing, testamentary wishes, and enforcement).

Licenses and Transfers

Ownership of copyright can be assigned or licensed. A valid assignment of rights must be in writing and signed by the owner.

Licenses may be implied. However, an exclusive license must be in writing. Where a work is produced by 2 or more authors, 1 author cannot exclusively assign or license the copyright in the work without consent from the other joint authors.

Reversionary Right

If the 1st owner of a work is the author, then (except for their will), their estate has a reversionary right to the copyright in that work 25 years after the death of the author. No assignment or license to the copyright in that work is valid to the extent it relates to that later period.  However, this does not apply to collective works.

The ownership of the copyright corresponds to the original author, being possible to transfer his rights. Exceptionally, copyrights can fall on a different person than the author (eg, software). As to license agreements, the law requires certain minimum requirements, such as  granted rights, the term, any payment or license fee, the condition of reproduction, the territory and any other limitation imposed by the author. It is not necessary to record this agreement.

As a general principle, the author who creates the work owns the copyright in the work. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the citizen, legal person or other organization that puts their name to a work is the author of the work. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized. The copyright in a commissioned work shall be vested in the commissioned party unless it is agreed otherwise in writing.

The ownership of the work and the corresponding rights come into existence upon creation. Registration is not required to validate the copyright; nevertheless, it is recommended for publicity purposes and constitutes a suitable means of evidence of the right. However, if the economic right has been transferred, such a transfer will only be enforceable against third parties once it is registered before the National Copyright Office (Oficina Nacional de Derechos de Autor). Otherwise, the rights will remain with the author or the previously registered assignee.

Law 1450 of 2011 states that the transfer of economic rights can be limited regarding the methods of exploitation, the time and the territory as provided in the corresponding agreement. If the agreement does not determine the time and the territory regarding which the transfer is made, the law assumes that it is limited to 5 years and to the country where the transfer is consummated. Moreover, this kind of agreement shall be executed in writing and any clause that transfers economic rights in whole or in such way that future production is not determinable or compels to restrict it, will not be enforceable.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized when the contribution of each author is significant and cannot be determined. Contribution of separate ideas does not constitute a collaborative work. Joint ownership implies that the right of repentance and the right to modify the work must be exercised jointly by the authors. Thus, authors must agree on the changes that will be introduced to the work.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized; the co-author's share of the profit can be modified by an agreement between the co-authors. Statutory and implied licenses are recognized.

The author owns the work. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized. The copyright of the author may be transferred by agreement.

Moral rights cannot be fully transferred. The author’s moral rights consist of 1) the author’s claim to reputation and 2) the right to ensure that no changes detrimental to the author’s reputation or character were made to the work.

Copyright is considered to consist of moral and economical rights to the work, of which the latter may be freely transferred or licensed, wholly or partially. Moral rights such as authorship cannot be transferred. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized.

There are no formal requirements for copyright protection.

Copyright cannot be registered in France, but a work can be filed (in an envelope Soleau or E-Soleau) at the French Intellectual Property Office (INPI) or with a trusted 3rd party to secure the date of the creation (and, to a lesser extent, proof of existence and authorship).

Under French law, copyright is, by principle, vested in the author upon creation of the work.

Only economic rights are assignable. Moral rights are inalienable and belong to the author perpetually.

Assignment of copyright by the author must comply with the stringent requirements of Article L. 131-3 of the French Intellectual Property Code, which provides that the assignment agreement must expressly mention all and any rights assigned (eg, right of reproduction, right of representation, and communication, adaptation, or translation) together with their associated scope and span.

The creator of a piece of work is the owner of the copyright. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized.

Generally, the copyright itself is not transferable. Therefore, any clauses in employment contracts that stipulate that the employer rather than the employee becomes the owner of the work are invalid. However, the author may grant the rights to use the work in a particular manner or in any manner. Such exploitation rights may be granted as non-exclusive rights or as exclusive rights. A transfer or the termination of exploitation rights does not affect the effectiveness of a derived exploitation right. In the case of joint ownership, exploitation rights may be granted only with the consent of other rights holders. Exploitation rights may only be transferred from the licensee to a 3rd person with the author's consent. The author may, however, not unreasonably refuse their consent.

The author is generally entitled to the contractually agreed remuneration for the granting of rights. However, the remuneration must be of an appropriate amount, as otherwise the author may claim an amendment of the contract and further compensation. The inappropriateness may already exist at the time the license is granted, but could also arise from the subsequent profits made from the exploitation of the work. In order to enable the author to assess this, their contractual partners must provide them with information on the extent of use.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized. A license of copyright is a contractual right or permission from the copyright owner to perform certain acts otherwise prohibited under the Copyright Ordinance. The license may be exclusive or non-exclusive. An exclusive license must be in writing and signed by or on behalf of the copyright owner to be eligible to sue.

According to the Hungarian Copyright Act, a work protected by copyright may have several authors. There are 3 categories for joint works:

• Joint works (if the parts of such work cannot be used independently)
• Connected works (if the parts of a joint work can be used independently)
• Jointly created works (the right holder of such work is a natural person or legal entity who initiated and coordinated the creative process of a work where the authors' contribution to the work and their rights respectively cannot be separated from each other)

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized where a work has been produced by the collaboration of 2 or more authors and where the contribution of one author is not distinct from the contribution of the other author(s).

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized where a work has been produced by the collaboration of 2 or more authors and where the contribution of one author is not distinct from the contribution of the other author(s).

Implied licenses are usually not recognized in India, since the Copyright Act clearly requires that a copyright is granted or assigned in writing by the owner of the copyrighted work or their duly authorized agent. Further, where the term and geographical extent of the license is not clearly specified, the Copyright Act creates an assumption that the license has a term of 5 years and is applicable only within the territory of India.

Copyright law regulates provision regarding collective management institutions, which is an institution in the form of a nonprofit legal entity authorized by the creator, copyright holder and/or relevant right holder to operate its economic rights in terms of collecting and distributing royalty. A collective management institution must obtain operational license from the government. Copyright law also regulates that a copyright can become the object of fiduciary security.

A copyright holder has the right to give a license to a 3rd party based on a licensing agreement to publish and/or reproduce the creation subject to the copyright and to grant permission for 3rd parties to publish and/or reproduce that creation. Based on Minister Regulation No. 8, a copyright license agreement must be duly recorded, and the application for recording can be made electronically or in paper format. The recording is valid for a duration of 5 years and can be renewed. Minister Regulation No. 8 requires a copy of the copyright license agreement, proof of ownership of copyright, original of special power of attorney and proof of payment to be submitted. The applicant is also required to provide a statement letter stating that the object of the license agreement is still valid, will not cause any losses to the national economy interest, will not inhibit the development of technology and is not in conflict with the laws and regulations, morality and public order.

Under Irish law, copyright may be held jointly between 2 or more authors or creators.

There are no restrictions on assignment (transfer) or licensing of copyright works under Irish law. However there are a number of formalities set out in copyright law which must be adhered to.

The author of a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work or the producer of a sound recording is the first owner of copyright in the work or sound recording, respectively. The employer is the first owner of copyright in a work created by an employee during and as a result of their employment, unless otherwise agreed. Copyright in a commissioned work remains with the author unless otherwise agreed by the commissioning party and the author, expressly or impliedly; however, the first owner of copyright in a portrait or photograph of a family event or other private event made pursuant to a commission shall be the commissioning party.

Licenses can be granted by the copyright owners and by licensees authorized to grant sub-licenses. There is no need to record such licenses with any authority. An exclusive license or a transfer of copyright must be in writing, but this does not apply to non-exclusive licenses.

As for moral rights, these are personal and cannot be transferred, although it is generally accepted that they can be inherited, nor do they belong to the employer in an employer/employee relationship. There is no moral right in software.

Transfer of the ownership (economic rights) is allowed and must be in writing.

Generally speaking, the transfer of 1 or more copies of a copyrighted work does not entail the transfer of the copyright, unless differently agreed. It is considered, however, that the transfer of a mold or of any other means capable of reproducing the work implies the transfer of the copyright over the work, unless differently agreed.

Joint ownership of copyright is recognized with regard to joint works and collective works.

Exercise of a jointly owned copyright requires consent from the other joint owner(s) of the copyright. However, each joint owner cannot withhold consent without reasonable grounds.

Exclusive and non-exclusive licenses, as well as transfer of copyright are recognized. Moral rights are not transferrable and not waivable.

Only natural persons (ie, individuals) who have created works may enjoy the status of an author, even where an author is an employee. However, there are some presumptions, such as those regarding the assignment of economic rights in computer programs, that automatically favor employers.

The Copyright Law includes a rebuttable presumption of authorship; the author is presumed to be the person under whose name the work is being disclosed.

Persons collaborating directly on the creation of a work become co-authors. Their copyright is indivisible. In these situations, the exercise of the right of co-authors is governed by agreement. Failing such agreement, no author may exercise this right in isolation, unless a court decision provides otherwise in case of a dispute. In a situation in which the contributions of the authors may be individually identified, those authors share the right to exploit their contribution in isolation provided that such exploitation is not done together with the contribution of another co-author and does not harm the joint work.

The economic rights of the author shall be freely assignable and transferable, in whole or in part, in accordance with the provisions of the Civil Code. In particular, they may be the subject of alienation or of an ordinary or exclusive license.

A specificity of Luxembourg copyright law is that it also allows the author to assign or transfer, in whole or in part, their moral rights to the extent that it is not prejudicial to their honor or reputation.

In order to perfect ownership of a copyright, the author must register their work with the National Institute of Author Rights (Instituto Nacional del Derecho de Autor).

Titleholder of the economic rights of the copyright may grant exclusive or non-exclusive licenses to 3rd parties, as well as transfer their rights.

All transfers shall be conducted against valid consideration and on a non-perpetual basis.

Licenses and transfer of copyrights shall be evidenced in writing and shall be registered with the National Institute of Author Rights.

The copyrights related to broadcasting work are limited by the signal retransmission obligation for broadcasting concessionaires set forth in the Federal Telecommunications and Broadcasting Law.

The Copyrights Act of 1912 provides a rebuttable presumption of authorship: the author is presumed (unless proven otherwise) to be the person identified by name on the work by virtue of the mention of their company name or the appearance of another sign that enables their identification.

Persons collaborating directly in the creation of a work become co-authors. The right of exploitation belongs to the authors together. In these situations, the exercise of the right of co-authors is governed by the rules regarding community, which is regulated in the Dutch Civil Code.

While an author's moral rights are in principle non-transferable and inalienable, an author's economic rights can be assignable and transferable, in whole or in part. The assignment of the copyrighted work and the grant of an exclusive license requires a written deed. The assignment or license will comprise only such rights as are recorded in such deed or necessarily derive from the nature or purpose of the title. The works transferred must be sufficiently determinable. If the author is a natural person, they have the right to terminate the assignment agreement or a license if the work is not sufficiently exploited within a reasonable time by the assignor or the licensee. The assignment or license of a copyright of a not-yet-existing work is possible but voidable if the author of the work is a natural person.

The author (ie, natural person) who grants a license is entitled to a fair remuneration. If the work is exploited in a way that was unforeseen at the moment the license was granted, the author (ie, natural person) can be entitled to an additional remuneration. These rights can be invoked against 3rd parties – such as 3rd-party assignees.

Authorization given by the author of a work protected by copyright to a 3rd party to file a design in which that work is incorporated must imply the assignment of the copyright attached to that work insofar as it is incorporated in the design. The party filing a design will be presumed also to be the owner of the copyright relating thereto; this presumption does not, however, apply in respect of the actual author of the copyrighted work or their beneficiary. The assignment of the copyright relating to a design will result in the assignment of the right in the design and vice versa.

The copyright owner can assign or license some or all of their copyright rights to another person. Moral rights may not be assigned, but these can be waived in certain circumstances and acts that would infringe moral rights can be consented to by the holder of the rights.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized and arises automatically where a work has been produced by more than one owner. In general, licensing jointly owned copyright works requires consent from all joint owners.

Authorized entities (educational establishments or resource suppliers, libraries, or charities) may reproduce, and distribute works incorporating copyrights in accessible formats (braille, audio, large print texts) without the permission of the copyright owners.

Ownership of copyright in works is, in the 1st instance, granted to the author. Authorship is defined in relation to each category of work. For literary, artistic, and musical works, the author is the creator of the work. The author of a photographic work is the person who took the photograph. In the case of an audiovisual work, the author is the person by whom the arrangements for the making of the audiovisual work were made, unless the parties to the making of the audiovisual work provide otherwise by contracts between them.

The exception to the rule of the author being the 1st owner of copyright is where a work is created by a person in the absence of an agreement to the contrary, under a contract for services, or in the course of employment by a government, a ministry, department, or agency of a government or a prescribed international or inter­governmental organisation, the copyright in that work shall vest in that government, ministry, department, agency, prescribed international, or inter-governmental organisation.

Joint ownership of copyright is also recognized under the Act and arises automatically where either a work is created by 2 or more persons or where several persons have an interest in a work.

Copyright, like all other proprietary rights, is transferable by assignment, license, testamentary disposition or by operation of the law. A copyright license (ie, a license to use the copyright work) may either be exclusive or non-exclusive. An assignment or exclusive license must be in writing to be enforceable. There is no requirement for a non-exclusive license to be in writing for it to be enforceable.

Each exclusive right is considered as a single unit of right, all of which constitutes copyright. Thus, each right may be transferred independent of the other right. A transfer of copyright may also be limited in relation to the duration and geographical coverage of the rights covered.

The author owns the work. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized, and the economic rights to the work can be transferred or licensed, in whole or in part. Moral rights may not be transferred and can only be waived – except from the right to be referred to as the author, which cannot be transferred or waived. There are no formal requirements for licenses. However, through the Copyright Act of 2018, the original author or artist has an invariable right to get a reasonable remuneration when transferring their rights to commercial parties. This provision is meant to protect the artists from being taken advantage of when negotiating transfers. Furthermore, a transfer of copyright does not entail a right to change the work unless explicitly agreed, and copyright may not be further transferred unless having obtained the author's consent unless transferred as part of a business transfer.

The ownership of a copyright is given with the creation of the original work; however, the author or economic rights holder can register their work with the National Copyright Office to obtain a declaration of the ownership.
 
The titleholder of the economic rights of the copyright may grant exclusive or non-exclusive licenses to third parties as well as transfer their rights.
 
Licenses and transfer of copyrights shall be evidenced in writing.

Copyright belongs to the author or creator of the work.

The IPC recognizes joint authorship, and the co-authors shall be the original owners of the copyright and in the absence of agreement, their rights shall be governed by the rules on co-ownership. If, however, a work of joint authorship consists of parts that can be used separately and the author of each part can be identified, the author of each part shall be the original owner of the copyright in the part that they have created.

In the case of audiovisual work, the copyright shall belong to the producer, the author of the scenario, the composer of the music, the film director and the author of the work so adapted. However, subject to contrary or other stipulations among the creators, the producer shall exercise the copyright to an extent required for the exhibition of the work in any manner, except for the right to collect performing license fees for the performance of musical compositions, with or without words, which are incorporated into the work.

In respect of letters, the copyright shall belong to the writer (subject to the relevant provisions of the Civil Code).

As a general rule, copyrights are owned by the author of the work. However, the author's economic copyrights may be assigned to 3rd parties (natural or legal persons), and also to heirs after the author's death.

An employer acquires the copyrights to the works created by an employee in the course of the performance of his/her employment duties, upon the acceptance of the work, within the scope resulting from the aim of the employment contract and the agreed will of the parties; however, copyrights to computer programs created by an employee in the course of the performance of his/her employment duties are vested in the employer (unless the employment agreement provides otherwise).

As a rule, a copyright assignment agreement must be concluded in writing (otherwise being null and void) and should list the fields of exploitation to which the assignment relates. Joint ownership of copyrights is also recognized under Polish law. The author's moral rights are non-transferrable.

Moreover, the author (or the owner of the author's economic copyrights) may grant consent for the use of the works to 3rd parties by concluding a license agreement, which may be exclusive or non-exclusive. An exclusive license needs to be concluded in writing. As a rule, licenses are limited in terms of the time, place and manner of using the copyrights.

Moral rights are inalienable.

The copyright owner (as well as their successors or assignees) may authorize the use of the work by 3rd parties or assign economic rights, wholly or partially.

Granting an authorization to 3rd parties in order for them to divulge, publish, use, or explore the work does not imply the transfer of copyright.

Authorization shall only be granted in writing (mandatorily including the duration, place and price conditions) and it is presumed to be onerous and non-exclusive.

The total and final transmission of copyright patrimonial rights shall only be valid if concluded by public deed.

Partial transmission shall be concluded in writing with notarized signatures and shall include the rights object of transmission and the execution - notably, the duration, place and price (if applicable). In case no duration is established, it is presumed that the maximum duration is 25 years (in general) and 10 years in cases of photographs or applied art.

Joint authorship is recognized in collective and common works. In case of collective works, the co-authors' personal contributions may not be differentiated when considering the nature of the work and, in such cases, the copyrights are jointly exercised. Conversely, in case of works created in common, the personal contribution of each of the co-authors may be separated and utilized independently provided that such use does not harm the rights of the other co-authors. Except when otherwise agreed, the co-authors of a common work may not utilize the work without having the joint consent of all co-authors.

Copyrights may be transferred by way of an assignment contract, which must contain clauses referring to the patrimonial rights transmitted and must indicate each right transferred, the modalities of use, the duration and extent of the assignment and the remuneration of the copyright holder. The absence of any of these provisions entitles the interested party to request the termination of the contract. Licenses are additionally possible, and their duration is limited to 49 years.

Joint ownership of copyright is recognized with regard to joint works.

Transfer of copyright ownership (exclusive rights to a work) is allowed and must be in writing for most types of use. In general, the transfer of 1 or more copies of a copyrighted work does not imply the transfer of the copyright, unless differently agreed.

Joint ownership of copyright is recognized. Any transfer of copyright must be recorded in writing and must express any limits to the scope of the transferred right with respect to both time and place.

Under the Copyright Act 2021, the creator is the default copyright owner and owns all commissioned work with the exception of employee-created works, ie, if an employee creates a work according to the terms of their employment contract in the course of employment, the employer will own the copyright by default. However, the parties can vary this default ownership position by written agreement. In the case of a journalist working for a newspaper or magazine, the owner of the newspaper or magazine owns the copyright of the publication in any newspaper or magazine but the employee owns the remaining rights that make up the copyright bundle of exclusive rights.

Copyright owners may transfer their rights to other parties either partially or wholly. They may also license their copyrights either partially or wholly. Future copyrights for a work that has yet to be produced can also be licensed. The license can be exclusive or non-exclusive.

In Singapore, there are collective management organizations (CMOs) which manage the rights of rightsholders in their copyright works. Such entities negotiate, grant and administer licenses on behalf of the rightsholders and also collect and distribute royalties. Following public consultation from November 2022 to January 2023, the Ministry of Law and the IPOS published on October 31, 2023 the subsidiary legislation for a new CMO class licensing scheme, which will take effect from May 1, 2024. All CMOs will be automatically licensed under this CMO class licensing scheme and must comply with the class licence conditions pursuant to Part 9 of the Copyright Act 2021.  

The author as licensor may grant to a licensee the permission to use the work upon the license agreement. The license agreement contains, in particular, the way of using the work, scope of the license, duration of the license and remuneration. However, the author may agree to grant a free license to a licensee.

The CA recognizes an author’s moral rights as well as economic rights. The moral rights are in principle inalienable. Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized. To exercise copyright in a jointly owned work, consent from all joint owners is required. Non-exclusive licenses are available. An exclusive right against 3rd parties is recognized only for the right of publication (including publication rights for computer programs).

The Legislative Royal Decree 1/1996 on Intellectual Property provides that copyrights in a work belong to the author, who is the person or group of persons who creates the work.

Economic rights of copyright owners may be transferred to 3rd parties. All transfers must be formalized in writing. The transfer of rights is limited to the specific rights, use, term and geographic scope stated in the contract/license. Transfers of rights can be either exclusive or non-exclusive. Moral rights are protected and are not assignable.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized and the right can be transferred partly. Moral rights may not be transferred and can only be waived in specified circumstances. There are no formal requirements for licenses although explicit contractual provisions regarding the right to sub-transfer and/or sub-license copyright are recommended, especially in regard to copyright created within an employment relationship.

Joint ownership of copyrights is legally recognized. Switzerland follows a system of legal licenses, which means that the law itself allows the private use of published works – with the exception of computer programs - under certain circumstances. A system of mandatory licenses also exists concerning the creation of phonograms. Furthermore,  Switzerland has an extended model of collective licensing. While it is mandatory in some fields, authors of some types of work may instead opt-out from the collective rights management system by the approved collecting societies.

The economic rights of a copyright can be freely assigned, licensed, pledged or inherited in whole or in part. Joint authorship of a copyright is permissible, provided that any assignment, grant of license or creation of pledge can only be made with the unanimous consent of all joint owners.

Under Ukrainian law, the author of a work is the initial copyright holder. Unless proven to the contrary, the person indicated as an author of the original or a specimen of a work is deemed to be the author of such work. Only natural persons may be recognized as authors in Ukraine.

Persons who created a work jointly are considered co-authors under Ukrainian law. Copyright with respect to a work created in co-authorship is vested with all co-authors irrespective of whether the work represents inseparable item or is composed of parts that each have independent significance. Relations between co-authors may be regulated by an agreement between them. Tangible intellectual property rights are owned jointly by all co-authors and are exercised by agreement between them. If a work created in co-authorship is composed of parts that each can be used independently from other parts of work, each co-author has a right to exercise tangible rights in relation to the part of the work created by such author, provided that such actions do not harm the normal use of such work and do not unreasonably restrict the legitimate interests of the respective copyright holders.

Copyright owners may grant the right to use or assign their rights to other parties either partially or wholly through a license or an assignment agreement. Licensing of a copyright to works which have not been created yet (ie, future works) is prohibited. Any licensing arrangements shall be executed in written (electronic) form. The rights which are not specifically listed as licensed or assigned in the agreement are regarded as not licensed or assigned respectively.

The relations on collective management of rights have been regulated in the Law of Ukraine “On the Effective Management by the Tangible Rights of Rightsholders in the Sphere of Copyright and (or) Related Rights” as of May 15, 2018, which is aimed to make the system of collective management more effective and transparent in Ukraine.

Assignments and licenses are both described under the Copyright Law as "transfers." For a transfer to be valid, it must be in writing and while there is no requirement for the transfer to be notarized and legalized, in practice, government authorities in the UAE may not accept a document that has not been formalized in this way. Similarly, the document should be in Arabic and if it is not, it should have an official Arabic translation. The right that is the subject of the transfer must be specified together with the purpose of the transfer. There is a requirement for the period of exploitation to be identified for all licenses, together with the geographical area in which the right will subsist.

Joint ownership of copyright is recognized and arises automatically where a work has more than 1 author. Joint ownership can create limitations on the ability of a joint owner to independently exploit the relevant work.

Joint ownership of copyrights is recognized, with each owner holding an independent right to use or license the use of the copyright in the work without the need to obtain the consent of the other co-owners. Each co-owner of a copyright has an obligation to account to the other co-owner(s), but the duty to account may be waived by contract. Implied licenses are also recognized.